HCI Design Knowledge – Critique, Challenge and a Way Forward

This is the first of two books concerned with engineering design principles for HCI (HCI-EDPs). The book presents the background for the companion volume. The background is divided into three parts and comprises – ‘HCI for EDPs’, ‘HCI design knowledge for EDPs’ and ‘HCI-EDPs – a Way Forward for HCI Design Knowledge’. The companion volume reports in full the acquisition of initial HCI-EDPs in the domains of domestic energy planning and control and business-to-consumer electronic commerce (Long, Cummaford and Stork, 2022).

The background includes the disciplinary basis for HCI-EDPs, and a critique of, and the challenge for, HCI design knowledge in general. The latter is categorised into three types for the purposes in hand. These are craft artefacts and design practice experience, models and methods, and principles, rules, and heuristics. HCI-EDPs attempt to meet the challenge for HCI design knowledge by increasing the reliability of its fitness-for-purpose to support HCI design practice. The book proposes ‘instance-first/class-first’ approaches to the acquisition of HCI-EDPs. The approaches are instantiated in two case studies, summarised here and reported in full in the companion volume.

The book is for undergraduate students trying to understand the different kinds of HCI design knowledge, their varied and associated claims and their potential for application to design practice now and in the future. The book also provides grounding for young researchers seeking to develop further HCI-EDPs in their own work.

Keywords

HCI engineering design principles; HCI-EDPs; HCI design knowledge; craft artefacts and design practice experience; models and methods; principles, rules, and heuristics; HCI design knowledge critique and challenge; HCI-EDP reliability and fitness for purpose.

The book is one of two. The companion volume is entitled ‘Towards Engineering Design principles for HCI’ (Long et al., 2022, in press).

The title of the present book describes its scope and content. The general scope is HCI design knowledge. Its general content comprises HCI design knowledge as craft artefacts and design practice experience; models and methods, and principles, rules, and heuristics. The specific scope is engineering design principles for HCI (HCI-EDPs). Its specific content comprises initial, as opposed to final, HCI-EDPs for the domains of domestic energy planning and control and business-to-consumer electronic commerce. The latter are summarised in this book and reported fully in the companion volume.

The present book is divided into three parts. The first is entitled ‘HCI for HCI-EDPs’. It presents the conceptions required and applied in the case studies of the acquisition of initial HCI-EDPs. The second part is entitled ‘HCI Design Knowledge for HCI-EDPs’. It presents the HCI design knowledge required and applied in the case studies of initial HCI-EDPs. The third part is entitled ‘EDPs – a way Forward for HCI Design Knowledge.‘It summarises the two case studies reporting the acquisition of initial HCI-EDPs in the domains of domestic energy planning and control and business-to-customer electronic commerce. The book references other types of HCI design knowledge by way of exemplification and contrast. Such HCI design knowledge, although not used in the present case studies, could be used in the form of ‘best-practice’ in any future acquisition of HCI-EDPs.

HCI design knowledge is at the heart of HCI. Its acquisition is the object of HCI research. Its application is the object of HCI practice. The development of both over the years has been extensive. The latter is attested both by the HCI research literature and by HCI reporting, at conferences such as the CHI series.

This undisputed development, however, has failed, to address the fundamental question of the fitness-for-purpose of design knowledge from an HCI discipline perspective. With few exceptions, there is little criticism of design knowledge from a discipline perspective. This is as opposed to its propagation and development more generally, in the research and professional literature. This book provides such a disciplinary perspective and an associated critique.

The latter constitutes a challenge for HCI design knowledge in general. To be fit-for-purpose, an HCI discipline requires design knowledge to be reliable in its application to design and its reliability to be known explicitly. Further, its reliability needs to be demonstrated, so creating the potential for disciplinary consensus, as required by a discipline. At present, there is no such guarantee, absolute or relative, that its application to the design of interactive systems to satisfy user and other requirements as desired, has the effect claimed for it. An HCI discipline requires such claims to be explicit. In general, current claims are implicit. Design knowledge, then, is not known to be effective from an HCI discipline perspective.

Some general thoughts are offered on the way forward for the different types of HCI design knowledge described and the associated developments and movements. In contrast, a specific proposal is made, concerning the way forward, as HCI-EDPs.

The book sets out ‘instance-first/class-first’ approaches to the acquisition of HCI-EDPs. The approaches are instantiated in two case studies, summarised here and reported in full in the companion volume (Long et al., 2022, in press). The application domains of the case studies are domestic energy planning and control, and business-to-consumer electronic commerce. Both studies report the acquisition of initial, as opposed to final, HCI -EDPs. Both reports include – an introduction to HCI-EDPs, two cycles of their development, their presentation and assessment and identification of further HCI-EDP research.

There is a need for both books. Much has been claimed for current HCI design knowledge and rightly so. Its propagation and influence is well attested by the HCI literature and CHI conference reports. New developments and movements continue its advance. However, a critical review of HCI design knowledge, from a disciplinary perspective, is timely and welcome. The resulting critique, however, attempts to be transparent, balanced and proportionate. It makes explicit the criteria, which are applied and their rationale. The criteria and critique apply to all the types of HCI design knowledge, including that of HCI-EDPs, the way forward, proposed here.

A search of the HCI literature suggests ‘instance–first/class-first’ approaches to the acquisition of HCI-EDPs to be novel with the exception of design patterns. There is overlap of HCI-EDPs with the latter, but also differences. However, carrying forward the former is considered to carry forward the latter, at least to a first approximation.

The review of HCI design knowledge from a discipline perspective suggests the absence of, and so the need for, more effective support for HCI design practice. Practice assignments, at the end of each chapter, facilitate the understanding of HCI design knowledge in general, including HCI-EDPs in particular. The final chapter suggests the future research required for acquiring further such HCI-EDPs.

The publication of the two books attempts to fill a gap in the literature. First, a review of HCI design knowledge from a disciplinary perspective. Second, HCI-EDPs as a way forward from that perspective.

The books differ from other recent books concerning HCI design knowledge and its application, such as Ritter, Baxter, and Churchill (2014) ‘Foundations for Designing User-Centered Systems’; Hartson and Pyla (2018) ‘The UX Book: Agile UX Design for a Quality User Experience’; Kim (2020) ‘Human-Computer Interaction – Foundations and Practice’  and Zagalo (2020) ‘Engagement Design: Designing for Interaction Motivations’. The present book conceives HCI design knowledge from a discipline perspective. The companion volume instantiates HCI EDPs as a way forward from that perspective. Taken together, the two books constitute a contrast with the books referenced.

The books also differ from Long (2021) ‘Approaches and Frameworks for HCI Research’. He proposes an approach and a framework for HCI engineering research, along with other types of research. Also, he refers, by way of an associated design research exemplar, to specific and general HCI principles. However, Long presents no critique of the different types of design knowledge, other than for the purposes of their formulation as approaches and frameworks. Neither does he report any case studies of their acquisition. The present books, then, can best be understood as starting, where Long left off.

The authors feel able to write such a book. They developed the critique of HCI design knowledge, during their time at University College London. It has been used to frame and to support related research, of which two case study examples are summarised here and reported fully in the companion volume (Long et al., 2022, in press). The authors’ engagement with the area of HCI design knowledge research is attested by key publications, which are referenced throughout the book – Stork (1999), Cummaford (2007) and Long (2010 and 2021). The authors continue to engage with developments in HCI design knowledge and its application, along with the domains of domestic energy planning and control, and business-to-consumer electronic commerce, respectively. Long was the initiator of the work and thesis director of studies for both the Stork and the Cummaford theses and associated case studies. He also wrote the first version of all the remaining chapters. He is responsible with Springer for bringing the book to publication. For these reasons, Long appears as first author. Cummaford and Stork are ordered alphabetically. All chapters have been reviewed and revised by all author.

Authors’ Biographies

JOHN LONG

University Degrees – MA Modern Languages (Cambridge), BSc Psychology (Hull), PhD (Cambridge) and DSc (London).

Books/Theses

‘Multidimensional Signal Recognition: Reduced Efficiency and Process Interaction’ (PhD), ‘Attention and Performance IX’, with Alan Baddeley (LEA), ‘Cognitive Ergonomics and Human-Computer Interaction’, with Andy Whitefield (CUP), ‘The MUSE Method for Usability Engineering’, with Kee Yong Lim (CUP), ‘Approaches and Frameworks for HCI Research’, (CUP) and ‘Towards Engineering Design Principles for HCI’, with Steve Cummaford and Adam Stork (Springer Nature).

STEVE CUMMAFORD

University Degrees – BA Philosophy (York), MSc Cognitive Science (Cardiff), PhD (London).

Books/Theses

‘The Effects of Expected and Unexpected Interruptions on Completion of Computer-based Tasks’ (MSc Thesis), ‘HCI Engineering Design Principles: Acquisition of Class-Level Knowledge’ (PhD) and ‘Towards Engineering Design Principles for HCI’, with John Long and Adam Stork (M&C).

Current Position

Lead digital product designer at Ted Baker

ADAM STORK

University Degrees – BSc Computing and Robotics (Kent), MSc Ergonomics/Human-Computer Interaction (London) and PhD (London).

Books/Theses

‘A Formal Description of Worksystem Behaviours and Interactions’ (MSc Thesis), ‘Towards Engineering Principles for Human-Computer Interaction’ (PhD) and ‘Towards Engineering Design Principles for HCI’, with John Long and Steve Cummaford, (M&C).

Current Position

Partner, also strategy and transformation consultant at Concerto.

The book is primarily for graduate and postgraduate students and in particular those studying HCI. It is also for young academic researchers and their directors of studies, interested in acquiring grounding in HCI-EDPs and in developing them further. Also in developing any other type of validatable and validated HCI design knowledge, as a way forward. Practice assignments at the end of each chapter support students in understanding, articulating and applying the concepts presented.

The book is also of interest to researchers and practitioners in related areas, contributing to HCI design knowledge, either directly or indirectly. The areas include cognitive psychology, human factors, design research, software engineering, design science, cognitive ergonomics, UX-design, and human-centred informatics. They all provide an appropriate readership for the book, its critique, its challenge and its way forward.

Acknowledgement

The book is offered as a tribute to colleagues and PhD students at the EU/UCL Unit at University College London, whose earlier research contributions have made it possible (for more information about such research contributions see <hciengineering.net>).

Thanks

Are due to Jack Carroll for including the book in his Synthesis Lectures on Human-centred Informatics Series and to Diane Cerra and Christine Kiilerich for faultless editing and bringing the book to print. Thanks are also due to two anonymous reviewers, who have contributed to improving the clarity and coverage of an earlier draft.

PART 1. HCI FOR HCI ENGINEERING DESIGN PRINCIPLES

The first part of the book presents the conceptions required and applied in the case studies of the acquisition of initial HCI-EDPs from a discipline perspective. The conceptions comprise those for HCI, HCI design, HCI knowledge and HCI design knowledge. Other types of HCI design knowledge are referenced in the individual chapters by way of exemplification and contrast. Such HCI design knowledge was not used in the present case studies. However, it could be used as best practice in any future acquisition of HCI-EDPs.

Chapter 1. HCI

1.1 Discipline

1.2 HCI Discipline

1.2.1 HCI General Problem

1.2.1.1 General

1.2.1.2 State of HCI General Problem

1.2.2 HCI Particular Scope

1.2.2.1 General

1.2.2.2 State of HCI Particular Scope

1.2.3 HCI Research

1.2.3.1 General

1.2.3.2 State of HCI Research

1.3 Practice Assignment

Chapter 2. HCI Design

2.1 Design

2.2 HCI Design

2.2.1 Example of User Requirements for HCI Engineering Design Principles

2.2.2 Example of Specification for HCI Engineering Design Principles

2.2.3 Example of Implementation for HCI Engineering Design Principles

2.3 Critique and Challenge for HCI Design

2.4 Practice Assignment

2.4.1 General

2.4.2 Practice Scenario

2.5 Notes

Chapter 3. HCI Knowledge

3.1 Knowledge

3.2 HCI Knowledge

3.2.1 Example of Declarative and Procedural HCI Knowledge for HCI Engineering Design Principles

3.3 Critique and Challenge for HCI Knowledge

3.4 Practice Assignment

3.4.1 General

3.4.2 Practice Scenario

3.5 Notes

Chapter 4. HCI Design Knowledge

4.1 Design Knowledge

4.2 HCI Design Knowledge

4.2.1 Example of Guidelines Applied to Domestic Energy Planning and Control for Acquiring HCI Engineering Design Principles

4.2.2 Example of Guidelines Applied to Business-to-Consumer Electronic Commerce for Acquiring HCI Engineering Design Principles

4.3 Critique and Challenge for HCI Design Knowledge

4.4 Practice Assignment

PART 2. HCI DESIGN KNOWLEDGE FOR HCI ENGINEERING DESIGN PRINCIPLES

The second part of the book presents HCI design knowledge in general. Some HCI design knowledge is used in the HCI-EDP case studies. Other HCI design knowledge is to be contrasted with that of initial HCI-EDPs. The latter, as good practice, could be used in future case studies of HCI-EDP acquisition. The design knowledge comprises craft artefacts and design practice experience, models and methods, and principles, rules and heuristics. A critique and a challenge for each type of HCI design knowledge concern the reliability of the knowledge to support HCI design practice.

Chapter 5. Craft Artefacts and Design Practice Experience HCI Design Knowledge

5.1 Craft Artefacts and Design Practice Experience HCI Design Knowledge

5.2 State of Craft Artefacts and Design Practice Experience HCI Design Knowledge

5.3 Critique and Challenge for Craft Artefacts and Design Practice Experience as HCI Design Knowledge

5.4 Practice Assignment

5.5 Notes

Chapter 6. HCI Design Knowledge as Models and Methods

6.1 Models and Methods HCI Design Knowledge

6.2 State of Models HCI Design Knowledge

6.3 State of Methods HCI Design Knowledge

6.4 State of Models and Methods HCI Design Knowledge

6.5 Critique and Challenge for Models and Methods HCI Design Knowledge

6.6 Practice Assignment

6.7 Notes

Chapter 7. HCI Design Knowledge as Principles, Rules and Heuristics

7.1 Principles, Rules and Heuristics Design Knowledge

7.2 State of HCI Principles, Rules and Heuristics Design Knowledge

7.2.1 Principles HCI Design Knowledge

7.2.2 Rules HCI Design Knowledge

7.2.3 Heuristics HCI Design Knowledge

7.3 Critique and Challenge for HCI Principles, Rules and Heuristics Design Knowledge

7.4 Practice Assignment

7.5 Notes

PART 3. HCI ENGINEERING DESIGN PRINCIPLES – A WAY FORWARD FOR HCI DESIGN KNOWLEDGE

The third part of the book presents the conceptions of HCI engineering design principles required and applied in the acquisition of initial HCI-EDPs. The latter are intended to meet the challenge posed by the critique of HCI design knowledge of making the latter more reliable in its support for HCI design practice. The part summarises the two case studies reporting the acquisition of initial HCI-EDPs in the domains of domestic energy planning and control, and business-to-customer electronic commerce. The part also identifies the future research required to acquire further such HCI-EDPs.

Chapter 8. HCI Engineering Design Principles as a Way Forward for HCI Design Knowledge

8.1 Principles

8.2 Engineering Principles

8.3 HCI Principles

8.4 HCI Engineering Design Principles

8.4.1 Classification Space for HCI Engineering Design Principles

8.4.2 HCI Design Patterns

8.5 State of HCI Engineering Design Principles

8.6 HCI Engineering Design Principles as a Way Forward for HCI Design Knowledge

8.7 Practice Assignment

8.8 Notes

Chapter 9. Case Studies of the Acquisition of Initial HCI Engineering Design Principles

9.1 Domestic Energy Planning and Control

9.1.1 Introduction to HCI Engineering Design Principles

9.1.2 Development Cycle 1 for the Acquisition of HCI Engineering Design Principles for Domestic Energy Planning and Control

9.1.3 Development Cycle 2 for the Acquisition of HCI Engineering Design Principles for Domestic Energy Planning and Control

9.1.4 Presentation of HCI Engineering Design Principles for Domestic Energy Planning and Control

9.1.5 Assessment and Discussion of HCI Engineering Design Principles for Domestic Energy Planning and Control

9.2 Business-to-Consumer Electronic Commerce

9.2.1 Introduction to HCI Engineering Design Principles

9.2.2 Development Cycle 1 for the Acquisition of HCI Engineering Design Principles for Business-to-Consumer Electronic Commerce

9.2.3 Development Cycle 2 for the Acquisition of HCI Engineering Design Principles for Business-to-Consumer Electronic Commerce

9.2.4 Presentation of HCI Engineering Design Principles for Business-to-Consumer Electronic Commerce

9.2.5 Assessment and Discussion of HCI Engineering Design Principles for Business-to-Consumer Electronic Commerce

9.3 Practice Assignment

9.3.1 General

9.3.2 Practice Scenarios

9.4 Notes

Chapter 10

10.1 Towards More Effective Design Knowledge to Support HCI Design Practice

10.1.1 Craft Artefacts and Design Practice Experience Ways Forward for HCI Design Knowledge

10.1.2 Models and Methods Ways Forward for HCI Design Knowledge

10.1.3 Principles, Rules and Heuristics Ways forward for HCI Design Knowledge

10.2 Research Towards HCI Engineering Design Principles  

10.2.1 Research Progress Towards HCI Engineering Design Principles

10.2.2 Further Research Towards Acquiring HCI Engineering Design Principles

10.3 Practice Assignment

10.3.1 General

10.3.2 Practice Scenarios

Chapter 1. HCI

Summary

The chapter introduces Human-Computer Interaction (HCI) and its current state. HCI is conceived from a discipline perspective. The HCI discipline comprises an HCI general problem, with a particular HCI scope, which conducts HCI research. The latter acquires and validates HCI design knowledge to support HCI design practice. The conception supports the acquisition of initial HCI-EDPs, as summarised in Chapter 9 and reported fully in the companion volume (Long et al., 2022, in press). Other discipline conceptions are referenced in contrast. The introduction forms the basis for the following chapter on HCI design.

1.1 Discipline

The discipline, assumed here for the acquisition of HCI-EDPs, comprises a general problem and a particular scope (see Long, 2021). For example, the discipline of science has the general problem of understanding natural phenomena. Psychology, as a sub-discipline of science, has the particular scope of understanding human behaviour. In turn, understanding natural phenomena comprises the practices of explaining known phenomena and predicting unknown phenomena. The explanation, together with the prediction of natural phenomena, constitute the scientific understanding of such phenomena.

The discipline, assumed here, further comprises practices and the knowledge, required to support them. Research acquires and validates such knowledge. For example, scientific theory is the knowledge supporting the practices of explanation and prediction and so the scientific understanding of natural phenomena.

Last, the discipline can be assessed for the appropriateness of its knowledge to support its practices in terms of the former’s completeness, coherence and fitness-for-purpose and other criteria.

No conception of HCI, as a discipline, meets with general acceptance at this time. This includes the conception proposed here. Nor is general acceptance required for present purposes. Different conceptions exist from different perspectives, for different purposes, with different values and can be assessed by different criteria. However, it should be noted, that the present conception shares many assumptions with both scientific, engineering and other types of discipline, as presented in books, such as for example, Harper, Rodden, Rogers and Sellen (2008) and Rogers, Sharp and Preece (2011).

1.2 HCI Discipline

Figure 1.1 HCI Discipline

Although the figure serves its purpose, its format serves a more general aim, which is to support comparison with other such figures, for example, those of 2-8.1. The format helps identify the similarities and differences, as concerns the conceptual contents. Likewise, for alternative conceptions, which readers might like to formulate for themselves.

The conceptions of the HCI discipline may take different forms for different purposes and to embody different values. An example is Long’s (2012) categorisation of approaches and frameworks for HCI as innovation, art, craft, engineering, applied and science. Further, according to Rogers (2012), there are six overlapping fields, in addition to HCI – ubiquitous computing, human factors, cognitive engineering, cognitive ergonomics, computer supported cooperative work (CSCW) and information systems. She goes on to claim, that the following seven academic disciplines may contribute to these overlapping fields – ergonomics, psychology/cognitive psychology, design informatics, engineering, computer science/software engineering and social science.

This is without the so-called ‘movements’, such as ‘design science’ (Hevner, Ram, March and Park, 2004), ‘design research’ (Roedl and Stolterman, 2013) and ‘agile methods’ (da Silva, Silveira, Silveira, and Maurer, 2015, and Gothelf and Seiden, 2016).

These different approaches and frameworks, overlapping fields, academic disciples and movements may have their own conceptions of HCI, which may be appropriate for their own application. However, they are not the conceptions underlying the present quest for HCI-EDPs. According to the latter, the HCI discipline general problem is the design of interactive human-computer systems to satisfy user and other requirements. The design of human-computer interactions can take many forms, for example, simulation and implementation at their most general. More specific forms of design are embodied in storyboard scenarios, wire-frame models, prototypes and initial system versions.

The HCI particular scope of the HCI discipline general problem of design is humans interacting with computers to do something as desired. What is desired is usually by the users, but may also be by the systems developers, the commissioners of the system and indeed a range other possible interested third parties. Both users and computers can be characterised in different ways for the purposes of such design, for example the professional user, the occasional user and the older user. An instance of the design of human-computer interactions to do something as desired by users and system commissioners might be the initial prototype of a portable interactive on-line dating system or Version 1 of a new gaming platform.

HCI discipline research, as conceived by HCI-EDP acquisition and validation comprises the diagnosis of design problems and the prescription of design solutions, as they relate to performance. HCI research acquires and validates HCI design knowledge to support HCI design practices. Other conceptions, as cited earlier, have other perspectives on research.

The latter can take many forms, for example, observational study, laboratory experiment and model/method development. Knowledge acquisition may involve different criteria, for example, completeness, need, coherence, viability, risk, profitability and fitness-for-purpose. An instance of research might be the application of face recognition to the checking of traveller identity at national boundaries.

HCI discipline knowledge is acquired and validated to support HCI design practices. Knowledge may be of different kinds, for example, design methods, design heuristics and design guidelines. Knowledge may be more-or-less formal, for example, HCI-EDPs and as embodied in successful design artefacts, respectively. Knowledge may also offer more-or-less guaranteed support in terms of reliability of application, for example, HCI-EDPs and design heuristics, respectively. An instance of research might be the production of guidelines or models for the development of trust in on-line banking transactions.

HCI discipline practices are supported by knowledge, acquired and validated by research.

Design practices include, for example, specifying and implementing human-computer interactions for interactive systems to do something as desired. Users of an interactive on-line shopping system might complain that they cannot manage their shopping budget well enough. They are unable to keep track of the cost of the goods in their shopping cart and so spend more than they intend. Were this considered a user problem and a design problem, design practice might determine a solution in the form of a display of the running total of the cost of the scanned goods in the users’ cart, as a percentage of their pre-entered budget. The solution might then be specified and implemented. The solution might also satisfy a business need for users to be able to sustain a realistic spend threshold, rather than one, which is too low, resulting in lower sales and profits. For a more detailed exemplification of HCI as a disciple, consider the two case studies, summarised in Chapter 9.

The domestic energy planning and control case study (see 9.1 and Figure 1.1) espouses the HCI discipline, with its own specific field of academic study, as engineering. The latter discipline has the general problem of the design of domestic energy planning and control interactive systems. The particular scope comprises home occupiers, interacting with devices for the planning and controlling of house temperatures, as desired. The case study is itself an example of HCI research.

The business-to-consumer electronic commerce case study (see 9.2 and Figure 1.1) also espouses the HCI discipline, with its own specific field of academic study, as engineering. The latter discipline has the general problem of the design of business-to-consumer electronic commerce interactive systems. The particular scope comprises buyers, interacting with computers to acquire goods, as desired. The case study is itself an example of HCI research.

In both case studies, the HCI discipline espoused is for the purposes if acquiring HCI-EDPs. Other conceptions of HCI as a discipline, identified earlier, may be espoused for other purposes and with other values.

1.2.1 HCI General Problem

The HCI general problem, as assumed here for the purpose of acquiring initial HCI-EDPs,

 comprises a general description and its state.

1.2.1.1 General

The HCI general problem is one of design. As an example of HCI design, the graphical user interface (GUI) resulted from designs originating with Xerox, Apple and other research and development organisations. GUI interfaces currently characterise the design of applications, such as multi-media learning, e-commerce and Internet banking. Other application designs range from buying pet insurance, to on-line dating, flower arranging and exercising at home. Public service application designs characterise the control panels, used by aviation and rail services.

The HCI general problem of design is also reflected in the activities of HCI designers and researchers. Applied psychologists seek to understand applications both theoretically and empirically. Cognitive engineers model the knowledge, required to use interactive systems. Ease of use specialists evaluate the usability of applications. Design science researchers characterise different types of design and associate them with different types of risk. Human-centred designers assess user and other requirements against application system functions. Last, interaction researchers model task behaviours using wireframe and other models.

1.2.1.2 State of HCI General Problem

The state of the HCI general problem, as one of design, is described in terms of the progress made in the design of applications. HCI design can be characterised, as a set of practices, comprising – graphic, product, artist, industrial and film industry design (Rogers, 2012). Graphic design has progressed from static images to animations in support of the illustration and attention seeking, required by commercial advertising. Product design has progressed from drawing board to interactive computer-aided design of buildings and domestic artefacts, such as furniture and fabrics. Artist design has progressed from paper-based sketching to interactive systems, supporting painting and drawing. Industrial design has progressed from interactive to part-automated systems for manufactured artefacts, such as spare parts and tools. Last, film industry design has progressed from voice to synthesised voice and image representations to be found in social media videos.

For a more detailed exemplification of the HCI general problem, consider the two case studies, summarised in Chapter 9.

The domestic energy planning and control case study (see 9.1 and Figure 1.1) has the general problem of the design of domestic energy planning and control interactive systems, comprising the specification and implementation of such systems. The latter have the particular scope of home occupiers, interacting with devices for the planning and controlling of house temperatures, as desired. The case study is itself an example of HCI research.

The business-to-consumer electronic commerce case study (see 9.2 and Figure 1.1) has the general problem of the design of the business-to-consumer electronic commerce interactive systems, comprising the specification and implementation of such systems. The latter have the particular scope of buyers, interacting with computers to acquire goods, as desired. The case study is itself an example of HCI research.

Progress, then, has been made by design practices, which solve the HCI general problem of design.

1.2.2 HCI Particular Scope

The HCI particular scope, as assumed here for the purpose of acquiring initial HCI-EDPs, comprises a general description and its state.

1.2.2.1 General

For acquiring HCI-EDPs, it is assumed that the particular scope of the HCI general problem is one of the design of humans interacting with computers to do something as desired (see also Long, 2021). What is desired is expressed as performance, whether in terms of user experience or the outcomes of the interaction. The latter may also reflect both those of the user and those of the application provider. The particular scope of Internet banking applications is the support of bank customers to pay bills, to make money transfers and to keep a record of their savings, consistent with their financial needs and goals and with those of the banks, such as profitability. The particular scope of multi-media applications is support for the sharing of communications and images among family and friends, according to their individual preferences and in line with the business interests of the hosting platform. Last, the particular scope of smart ‘phone central heating applications is to support the setting of ambient room temperatures. The latter are set according to the time of year and the comfort requirements of the house occupiers, even when they are not themselves at home and according to the profit criteria of the suppliers.

The HCI particular scope of humans interacting with computers to do something as desired is also reflected in the activities of HCI designers and researchers of applications. This is the case for applied psychologists, design scientists, cognitive engineers, design researchers, ease of use/usability experts, human-centred design consultants and user experience (UX) design practitioners.However, although espousing different approaches to design and research, all address the same HCI particular scope.

1.2.2.2 State of HCI Particular Scope

The state of the particular scope of the HCI general problem is described in terms of humans interacting with computers to do something as desired. The state comprises, for example, humans, computers, interactions and performance. The progress in the state of each follows.

The progress in the scope of humans can be characterised, as expanding sets of users, for example, professional, office and factory, domestic, young and older users (Harper et al., 2008). Professional users, for example, include scientists and engineers, using project-planning applications to monitor project progress and budgets. Office and factory users include managers and supervisors, using spreadsheet and PowerPoint applications to organise staff rotas. Domestic users include family and friends, engaging with communications and multi-media applications to maintain social relations, even when apart. Young users include children, using educational and gaming applications to support their evolving engagement with society and with the world at large. Last, older users include the retired, using social support and medical applications to maintain their quality of life. 

The progress in the scope of computers can also be described, as expanding sets of computing technology, for example, mainframe, personal, communicating and ubiquitous (Sharp, Rogers and Preece, 2007). Mainframe computers are located in a single place and serve the application needs of individual organisations, such as commercial companies, hospital trusts and military centres. Personal computers are located with individuals, and so are to be found everywhere, serving the application needs of managers, housewives, secretaries, the retired and supervisors. Communicating computers may be located anywhere, serving the application needs of geographically distributed companies, such as global suppliers and families, whose members live in different countries. Last, ubiquitous computers are located everywhere, serving the application needs of people, whether at home, at work, elsewhere, travelling to the office and factory or on holiday at home or abroad.

The progress in the scope of interactions can be described, as expanding sets of interactions, for example, punching cards, typing programmes, issuing command-based instructions, pointing, touching, speaking and gesturing (Rogers et al, 2011). Punching cards involves making holes in paper cards, which can then be ‘read’ by a computer. Typing programmes involves instructing the computer in a technical language. Issuing command-based instructions involves the technical use of ordinary language. Pointing usually involves a cursor, controlled by a mouse. Touching typically requires the human finger and a display. Speaking involves the human voice and usually ordinary language. Last, gesturing involves the hands or other parts of the human body.      

The progress in the scope of ‘doing something as desired’ as performance can be characterised historically in terms of the concept’s development. For example, performance was initially expressed as speed and errors, reflecting the time taken to complete a task and the number of errors committed in so doing. Desired performance might then be expressed for air traffic controllers as ‘errorless performance’, for example as reflected by the absence of safety violations. A trade-off was found to exist between the two concepts. The faster a task is performed, the more errors are likely to be committed and vice versa. Effective performance as optimisation describes a task, as being done as well as it is possible to do so. Desired performance might then be expressed for production workers, as ‘optimal performance’, for example, as reflected by workflow criteria. Later, some researchers rejected effectiveness as an inappropriate performance criterion for play, leisure and education (conceived as opposed to work). The concept of performance was subsequently extended to include emotional engagement, as instanced by the performance of tasks, affording ‘fun’, such as in gaming, puzzle-solving and pet-caring applications.

For a more detailed exemplification of the HCI particular scope, consider the two case studies, summarised in Chapter 9 (also Long et al., 2022, in press).

The domestic energy planning and control case study (see 9.1 and Figure 1.1) has the general problem of the design of energy planning and control interactive systems, comprising the specification and implementation of such systems. The latter have the particular scope of home occupiers, interacting with devices for the planning and controlling of their comfort preference, as desired. The case study is itself an example of HCI research.

The business-to-consumer electronic commerce case study (see 9.2 and Figure 1.1) has the general problem of the design of the business-to-consumer electronic commerce interactive systems, comprising the specification and implementation of such systems. The latter have the particular scope of buyers, interacting with computers to acquire physical goods, such as tea and information goods, such as alarm alerts, as desired. The case study is itself an example of HCI research.

1.2.3 HCI Research

HCI research, as assumed here for the purpose of acquiring initial HCI-EDPs,

 comprises a general description and its state.

1.2.3.1 General

HCI research acquires and validates HCI knowledge to support practices in solving the general HCI problem of design with the particular scope of humans interacting with computers to do something as desired.

 Internet banking research has concerned itself with ways of identifying customers’ requirements to support the design of novel interfaces for managing, that is planning and controlling, their financial affairs, together with the interests of the bank, such as safety. Multi-media research has concerned itself with understanding the sharing of communications and images among colleagues and customers to produce guidelines in support of multi-media video design. Last, mobile ‘phone central heating application research has concerned itself with design models of domestic temperature setting and control. The latter are effected at a distance by means of mobile ‘phones, to assure house owner comfort on returning home.

HCI research of acquiring and validating knowledge is also reflected in the activities of HCI designers and researchers of applications. This is the case, whether they are applied psychologists, design scientists, cognitive engineers, ease of use/usability experts, human-centred design consultants, or user experience (UX) design practitioners. However, although espousing different approaches to, and frameworks for, research and producing different kinds of knowledge to support different kinds of design practice, they all have the same HCI general problem of design and the same HCI particular scope of humans interacting with computers to do something as desired.

1.2.3.2 State of HCI Research

HCI research acquires and validates knowledge to support HCI practices in solving the general HCI problem of design with the particular scope of humans interacting with computers to do something as desired. The state comprises knowledge and practices, which are exemplified as follows.

Concerning HCI knowledge, Internet banking research has developed standards, which address customers’ requirements for paying bills, for transferring money and for recording their savings. Multi-media research has concerned itself with producing theories, reflecting the sharing of communications and images among colleagues and customers. Last, central heating research has concerned itself with heuristics for relating domestic temperatures to user comfort, contingent on outside temperatures and homeowner preferences.

As concerns HCI practices of research and design, these can be characterised as interdisciplinary overlapping fields (Rogers, 2012). The latter comprise – human factors, cognitive engineering, human-computer interaction, cognitive ergonomics, computer-supported cooperative work (CSCW) and information systems. Together they have developed practices of trial and error, implement and test, implement test and evaluate for the applications cited earlier, involving the acquisition and validation of HCI knowledge.

For a more detailed exemplification of the HCI particular scope, consider the two case studies, summarised in Chapter 9.

The domestic energy planning and control case study (see 9.1 and Figure 1.1) has the general problem of the design of energy planning and control interactive systems, comprising the specification and implementation of such systems. The latter have the particular scope of home occupiers, interacting with computers for the planning and controlling of their comfort preference, as desired. The case study is itself an example of HCI research in that it reports the acquisition of initial HCI-EDPs for the domain of domestic energy planning and control.

The business-to-consumer electronic commerce case study (see 9.2 and Figure 1.1) has the general problem of the design of the business-to-consumer electronic commerce interactive systems, comprising the specification and implementation of such systems. The latter have the particular scope of buyers, interacting with computers for the purchase of physical goods, such as tea and information goods, such as alarm alerts, as desired. The case study is itself an example of HCI research in that it reports the acquisition of initial HCI-EDPs for the domain of business-to-consumer electronic commerce.

Review

HCI either comprises, or is associated with, many different types of discipline with different values and criteria, as identified earlier. However, for the purpose of acquiring initial HCI-EDPs, the HCI discipline is assumed to comprise – the HCI general problem of design with the particular scope of users interacting with computers to do something as desired. Also included is HCI research, as the acquisition and validation of knowledge to support practices in solving the general HCI problem. This conception forms the basis for the following chapter on HCI design.

1.3 Practice Assignment

Describe the assumptions made by what you understand by the term HCI general problem (as described in 1.2.1), HCI particular scope (as described in 1.2.2) and HCI research (as described in 1.2.3). If you have no clear understanding of the HCI general problem/particular scope/research, as described, of your own at this time, select the expressions offered by your supervisor/instructor/teacher. Alternatively, select expressions from a suitable publication from the HCI research literature, which is different from the ones proposed here. Readers may, of course, do both.

– Contrast the similarities and differences between the assumptions made by your (or other’s) understanding and those made here. Summarise the similarities and differences in the manner of Figure 1.1.

– How might the differences be made coherent?

– If they cannot be made coherent, why might this be so?

Hints and Tips

 Difficult to get started?

Try reading the chapter again, while at the same time thinking about how to describe your own understanding (or that of others). Note similarities and differences between the two lines of thought, as you go along.

– Describe your understanding (or that of others) in its own terms, before attempting to apply those proposed here.

Difficult to complete?

Familiarise yourself with the main ways of understanding HCI, identified in the HCI research literature, before attempting to address those proposed here.

Test

List from memory as many of the section titles as you can.

Alexander, C. (1979). The Timeless Way of Building. UK: Oxford University Press.

Atwood, M., Gray, W. and John, B. (1996). Project Ernestine: analytic and empirical methods applied to a real world CHI Problem. In Rudisill, M., Lewis, C., Polson, P. and McKay, T. (Eds). In Human Computer Interface Design: Success Stories, Emerging Methods and Real World Context, p.101. San Francisco, CA: Morgan Kaufmann.

Balaam, M., Comber, R., Jenkins, E., Sutton, S. and Garbett, A. (2015). FeedFinder: a location-mapping mobile application for breastfeeding women. Proceedings CHI ’15, 33^rd Annual ACM, p. 1709. Republic of Korea: ACM.

Barnard, P. (1991). Bridging between Basic Theories and the Artifacts of Human-Computer Interaction in Designing Interaction, Carroll, J. (Ed). UK: Cambridge University Press.

Baxter, G., Churchill, E. and Ritter, F. (2014). Addressing the Fundamental Error of Design Using the ABCS. AIS SIGHCI Newsletter, 13(1), 9-10.

Bayle, E. et al. (1997).  Putting it all together: towards a pattern language for interaction design.  CHI’97 Workshop. 

Bidigare, S. (2000). Information architecture of the shopping cart. Argus Centre for Information Architecture White Paper.

Camara, F. and Calvary, G. (2017). Bringing worth maps a step further: a dedicated on-line resource. Human-Computer Interaction – Interact 2017. Eds Bernhaupt, R., Dalvi, G., Joshi, A., Balkrishan, D., O’Neill, J. and Winckler, M. LNCS 10515 Springer 95-113.

Card, S., Moran, T. and Newell, A. (1983). The Psychology of Human-Computer Interaction. Hillsdale, NJ: LEA.

Carroll, J. (2003). Introduction: Toward a Multidisciplinary Science of Human-Computer Interaction. In Carroll, J. (Ed) HCI Models, Theories and Frameworks. San Francisco, CA: Morgan Kaufmann.

Carroll, J. (2010). Conceptualizing a Possible Discipline of Human-Computer Interaction. Interacting with Computers, 22 (1): 3-12.

Carroll, J., Kellog, W. and Rosson, M. (1991). The Task-Artifact Cycle in designing interaction. In Designing Interaction Carroll, J. (Ed) Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Chaparro, B. (2001). Top Ten Mistakes of Shopping Cart Design. Internet Working, 4.1.

Cockton, G. (2009). Getting There: Six Meta-principles and Interaction Design. In CHI ’09 Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in computing systems. April, 2009, pp 2223-2232.

Cummaford, S. (2000). Validating Effective Design Knowledge for Re-use: HCI Engineering Design Principles. In CHI ’00 Extended Abstracts on Human Factors in Computing Systems.  New York, NY: ACM Press.

Cummaford, S. (2007). HCI Engineering Design Principles: Acquisition of Class-level Knowledge. Unpublished PhD Thesis, University of London.

Cummaford, S. and Long, J. (1998). Towards a Conception of HCI Engineering Design Principles. In Proceedings of Ninth European Conference on Cognitive Ergonomics (ECCE9), Limerick, Ireland.

Cummaford, S. and Long, J. (1999) Costs Matrix: Systematic Comparisons of Competing Design Solutions. In Proc. INTERACT 99, Volume II, Edinburgh UK, 30 Aug-3 Sept 1999.

Da Silva, T., Silveira, F., Silveira M., Hellmann, T. and Maurer, F. (2015). A Systematic Mapping on Agile UCD Across the Major Agile and HCI Conferences. In Proc. ICCSA 2015, Banff, ABCanada.

Denley, I. and Long, J. (2001). Multi-disciplinary practice in requirements engineering: problems and criteria for support. In Blandford, A., Vanderdonkt, J. and Gray, P. (Eds) People and Computers XV – Interaction without Frontiers. Joint proceedings of HCI 2001 and IHM 2001. London: Springer Verlag.

Dowell, J. (1998). Formulating the Cognitive Design Problem of Air Traffic Management. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 49 (5): 743-766.

Dowell J. and Long J. (1989). Towards a Conception for an Engineering Discipline of Human Factors. Ergonomics, 32 (11): 1513-1535.

Gamma, E., Helm, R., Johnson, R. and Vlissides, J. (1995).  Design Patterns, Elements of Reusable Object-Oriented Software.  US: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.

Glaser, B. and Strauss, A. (1967). Discovery of Grounded Theory. London: Aldine.

Gothelf, J. and Seiden, J. (2016). Lean UX – Designing Great Products with Agile Teams. USA: O’Reilly Media Inc.

Hartson, R. and Pyla,P. (2018). The UX Book: Agile UX Design for a Quality User Experience. US: Morgan Kaufman.

Hevner, A., Ram, S., March, S. and Park, J. (2004) Design Science in Information Systems Research, MIS Quarterly, 28 (1), 75-105.

Hill, B. (2010). Diagnosing co-ordination problems in the emergency management response to disasters. Interacting with Computers, 22(1): 43-55.

John, B. and Gray, W. (1995). CPM-GOMS: an Analysis Method for Tasks with Parallel Activities. In Conference Companion on Human Factors in Computing Systems CHI’95, ACM.

Kalakota,R and Whinston, A. (1996). Frontiers of Electronic Commerce. US: Addison Wesley Longman Publishing Co., Inc.

Kienan, T. (2001). Boosting transaction usability. Tauberkienen Transaction Systems Report.

Kim, G. (2020). Human-Computer Interaction – Fundamentals and Practice. UK: CRC Press, Taylor and Francis.

Kirsh, D. (2001). The Context of Work. HCI 6(2): 306–322.

xxxLim K. and Long, J. (1994). The MUSE Method for Usability Engineering. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Long, J. (2010). Some Celebratory Reflections on a Celebratory HCI Festschrift, Interacting with Computers, 22 (1): 68-71.

Long, J. (2021). Approaches and Frameworks for HCI Research. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Long, J. and Brostoff, S. (2002). Validating design knowledge in the home: a successful case-study of dementia care. In Reed, D., Baxter, G. and Blythe, M. (Eds). EACE ’12. France: European Association of Cognitive Ergonomics.

Long, J. and Dowell, J. (1989). Conceptions of the Discipline of HCI: Craft, Applied Science and Engineering. In Sutcliffe, A. and Macaulay, L. (Eds), People and Computers V. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Long, J. and Hill, B. (2005). Validating Diagnostic Design Knowledge for Air Traffic Management: a Case-study. In Marmaras, N., Kontogiannis, T. and Nathanael, D. (Eds) EACE ’05. Greece: European Association of Cognitive Ergonomics.

Long, J. and Monk, A. (2002). Applying an engineering framework to telemedical research: a successful case-study. In Khalid, H. and Helander, M. (Eds) Proceedings of 7th International Conference on Working with Computers. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

Long, J., Cummaford, S. and Stork, A. (2022, in press). Towards Engineering Design Principles for HCI. Switzerland: Springer Nature.

Morton, J., Barnard, P., Hammond, N. and Long, J. (1979). Interacting with the Computer: a Framework. In Boutmy, E. and Danthine, A., (Eds), Teleinformatics ’79. Amsterdam: North Holland.

Nielsen, J. (1993) Usability Engineering. San Francisco: Morgan Kaufman.

Nielsen, J. (1994a) Enhancing the Explanatory Power of Usability Heuristics. Proc. ACM CHI’94 Conf. (Boston, MA, April, 24-28), 152-158.

Nielsen, J. (1994b) Heuristic Evaluation. In Nielsen, J., and Mack, R. (Eds.), Usability Methods. John Wiley & Sons: New York, NY.

Norman, D. (1983) Design Principles for Human-Computer Interfaces. In Smith, R., Pew, R. and Janda, A. (Eds) Proceedings of CHI 83, Human Factors in Computing Systems Conference. Boston, Massachusetts: United States ACM.

Norman, D. (1986). Cognitive Engineering. In Draper, S. and Norman, D. (Eds) User Centred System Design. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Norman, D. (2010). The Transmedia Design Challenge: Technology That Is Pleasurable and Satisfying. Interactions, 17, (1): 12-15.

Norman, D. (2013). The Design of Everyday Things (Revised Ed.). NY: Basic Books.

Pew, R. and Mavor, A. (2007). Human-System Integration in the System Development Process – a New Look. US: The National Academies Press.

Rauterberg, M. (2006). HCI as an Engineering Discipline: To Be or Not To Be!? African Journal of Information and Communication Technology, 2 (4): 163-184.

Ritter, F., Baxter, G. and Churchill, E. (2014). User-Centred Systems Design – a Brief History in Foundations for Designing User-Centered Systems, pp33-54. Switzerland: Springer Nature.

Roedl, D. and Stolterman, E. (2013) Design Research at CHI and Its Applicability to Design Practice. In Proc. ACM CHI’13 Conf. on Human Factors in Computing Systems, 1951-1954.

Rogers, Y. (2012). HCI Theory – Classical, Modern, and Contemporary. UK: Morgan and Claypool.

Seffah, A. (2015). Patterns of HCI Design and HCI Design of Patterns. Switzerland: Springer Nature.

Shneiderman, B. (1983). Direct Manipulation: a Step beyond Programming Languages. IEEE Computer, 16(8) 57.

Shneiderman, B. (1998). Designing the User Interface: Strategies for Effective Human- Computer Interaction, 3rd Edition. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

Shneiderman, B. (2010). Designing the User Interface: Strategies for Effective Human- Computer Interaction, 5th Edition. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

• Shneiderman, B. and Plaisant, E. (2004). Strategies for Evaluating Information Visualization Tools: Multi-dimensional In-Depth Long-term Case Studies. Conference: Proceedings of the 2006 AVI Workshop on BEyond time and errors: novel evaluation methods for information visualization. BELIV 2006, Venice, Italy, May 23, 2006.

Smith, M. and Mosier, J. (1986). Guidelines for designing interface software. Mitre Corporation Report MTR9240 Mitre Corporation.

•  

Smith, W., Hill, B., Long, J. and Whitefield, A. (1997). A Design-oriented Framework for Modelling the Planning and Control of Multiple Task Work in Secretarial Office Administration.  Behaviour & Information Technology. 16 (3), 289-309.

Snow Valley (2005a). Part 1: Transactional navigation elements style and terminology. IMRG E-retail Standardisation Report.

Snow Valley report (2005b). Part 2: The checkout process. IMRG E-retail Standardisation Report.

Stork, A. (1999). Towards Engineering Principles for Human-Computer Interaction (Domestic Energy Planning and Control). Unpublished PhD Thesis, University of London

Teo, L. and John, B. (2008). CogTool-Explorer: Towards a Tool for Predicting User Interaction. In Proc CHI EA’08, ACM, pp. 2793–2798.

Timmer, P. and Long, J. (2002). Expressing the Effectiveness of Planning Horizons. Le Travail Humain, 65 (2): 103-126.

Walsh, I. (2003). Good information architecture increases online sales. Sitepoint, 23^rd October, 2003.

Watts, L. and Monk, A. (1997). Telemedical Consultation: Task Characteristics. In Proceedings  CHI ’97, Atlanta, Georgia. ACM Press, pp. 534-535.

Watts, L. and Monk, A. (1998). Reasoning about Tasks, Activity and Technology to Support Collaboration. Ergonomics, 41 (11): 1583-1606.

Wickens, D. (1984). Engineering Psychology and Human Performance. Columbus: Merrill.

Wickens, D. (1993) Cognitive Factors in Display Design 83 (4): 179-201.

Wickens, C., Lee, J. and Becker, G. (2004).  An Introduction to Human Factors Engineering, 2nd edition, Pearson 2004, Chapter 8.

Wright, P., Fields, R. and Harrison, M. (2000). Analysing Human-Computer Interaction as Distributed Cognition: the Resources Model. Human Computer Interaction, 51 (1): 1–41.

Zagalo, N. (2020). Engagement Design: Designing for Interaction Motivations. Switzerland: Springer Nature.

Postscript

The Preface makes clear the book’s aims. It is now time to consider whether they have been met.

First, the scope and content of HCI design knowledge, for the purpose of acquiring initial HCI-EDPs, is characterised as craft artefacts and design practice experience, models and methods and principles, rules and heuristics. The latter characterisation reflects a discipline perspective and forms the basis of a critique of HCI design knowledge.

Second, the critique constitutes a challenge for HCI design knowledge of whatever sort, including that of HCI-EDPs, to provide more effective , that is reliable, support for HCI design practice.

Third, HCI-EDPs are proposed, as a way forward to meet the challenge of the greater reliability, required of HCI design knowledge, to support more effective HCI design practice.

Fourth, two case studies are summarised, which claim to have acquired initial, as opposed to final, HCI-EDPs for the application domains of domestic energy planning and control and of business-to-consumer electronic commerce.

Fifth and last, the claims of research progress, as concerns the acquisition of initial HCI-EDPs, are identified, along with the future research required for their final acquisition, operationalisation, test and generalisation, and so validation.

The book’s aims, then, are considered to be met. This may sound immodest at first blush. However, the truth of the matter resides in the magnitude of the undertaking itself. It is clear that the progress is at best modest, compared with the longer-term research requirements to acquire and to validate final HCI EDPs. Perhaps a more realistic claim is that a start has been made. However, such a start is required to show explicitly whether HCI-EDPs are viable or not. This is a proper subject for HCI research.

Good luck to all, who put forth and set sail on such a quest! They will need it.

Index

Air Traffic Management 6.2, 6.4

     Planning Horizon 6.2

Apple 1.2.11

Applied Psychology Frt

Best Practice 5.2

Best Selling Lists 5.5

Business-to-Consumer Electronic Commerce 9.2, 9.2.1, 9.2.2, 9.2.3, 9.2.4, 9.2.5

     Case Study

Case Studies

Central Heating 1.2.2.1

Challenge 3.3, 5.3, 6.5, 7.3

Civil Engineering 2.1

Class-based Approach Frt

     Class-first Strategy 9.2.1

     Class Design Problem 9.2.1

     Class Design Solution 9.2.1

Cognitive Engineering 1.2

Cognitive Ergonomics Frt

Cognitive Psychology Frt

Computer Architecture 9.1.1

Computing Technology 1.2.2.2

Conception 3.2.1

     HCI Engineering Design Principles

     HCI General Design Problem 10.2.1

     HCI General Design Solution 10.2.1

     HCI Specific Design Problem 10.2.1

     HCI Specific Design Solution

     Planning and Control

Costs Matrix

Craft Artefacts 5.1/5.2/5.3, 10.1.1

Critique 3.3, 5.3, 6.5, 7.3

Declarative Knowledge 3.2.1

Design 2.1

Design Knowledge 4.1, 5.1, 6.1, 7.1, 10.1

Design Practice Experience 5.1/5.2/5.3, 10.1.1

Design Problem 1.2

Design Solution 1.2

Direct Manipulation Theory 6.3

Domestic Energy Planning and Control 9.1, 9.1.2, 9.1.3, 9.1.4, 9.1.5

     Case Study

Discipline 1.

Domain 9.1.2

Ease of Use 1.2.2.1

Ecological Theory 6.1

E-Commerce 4.2.2

Effective Support 10.1

Electronic Engineering 2.1

EMCRS 6.4, 6.5

Engineering Principles 8.1

Ergonomics

E-Shops 4.2

Face Recognition 1.2

Feedfinder 5.2

Firefox

Formality 1.2

Formal Knowledge 1.2

Gaming 1.2

     Guarantees 3.2.1

     Procedural 3.2.1

GOMS – 6.1

Goods 1.2.2.2

     Physical

     Informational

Google Chrome

Graphical User Interface – GUI 1.2.11

Grounded Theory 6.3

Guidelines

     Business-to-Consumer Electronic Commerce 4.2.2

     Domestic Energy Planning and Control 4.2.1

Heuristics 7.1, 7.2, 7.2.3, 10.1.3

HCI Design

     Critique 2.3

     Challenge 2.3

HCI Design Practice

     Scenario-based Design 6.2, 6.5

HCI Design Knowledge 4.2, 10.1.1, 10.1.2, 10.1.3

     Critique 3.3, 4.3

     Challenge 3.3, 4.3

     Declarative 3.2.1

     Design Rationale 5.2, 6.4

     Procedural

HCI Design Patterns 8.4.2

HCI Design Practice 9.1.1

HCI Discipline 1.2

HCI Engineering Design Principles 8.4, 8.5, 8.6

     Classification Space 8.4.1

     Development Cycle 1 9.1.2

     Development Cycle 2 9.1.3

     Way Forward 8.6

HCI Evaluation

     Domestic Energy Planning and Control 5.2

     Business-to-Consumer Electronic Commerce

HCI General Problem 1.2.1/1.2.1.2, 2.1

HCI Knowledge 3.2

HCI Particular Scope 1.2.2/1.2.2.2

     Humans 1.2.2.2

     Computers 1.2.2.2

     Interactions 1.2.2.2

     Performance 1.2.2.2

HCI Principles 8.3

HCI Research 1.2.3/1.2.3.2

     Progress 10.2, 10.2.1, 10.2.2

HCI Validation 6.4

Human Architecture 9.1.1

Human-Centred Informatics

Human-Computer Systems 9.1.1

Human Factors 1.2

Implementation 2.2.3, 2.

Innovation 1.2

Inspirational Principles

Interaction Design 1.2

Interdisciplinary Overlapping Fields 6.2

Internet Explorer

Jamster 5.2

Knowledge 3.1, 3.5,

     Declarative (Substantive)

     Procedural (Methodological

Mercantile Models 9.2.1

Methods 6.3

Models 6.2

Models and Methods 6.1/6.4, 10.1.2

Multi-media 1.2.2.1

…..Challenge 6.5

…..Critique 6.5

Multiple Task Work 6.2

MUSE – Method for Usability Engineering 5.2, 6.3

On-line Banking 1.2

On-line Dating 1.2

On-line Shopping 1.2

Operationalisation 9.1.3

Performance 1.2.2.2

     Achievable Performance

Planning and Control 1.2

PowerPoint 1.2.2.2

Principles 7.1, 7.2, 7.2.1, 8.1, 10.1.3

Procedural Knowledge 3.2.1

Prototypes 1.2

Rules 7.1, 7.2, 7.2.2, 10.1.3

Safari

Simulation 1.2

Smart Phones 1.2.2.1

Snow Valley 4.2.1

Software Engineering Frt

Specification 2.2.2

Speed and Errors 1.2.2.2

Standards

Storyboard Scenarios 1.2

Strategy 9.1.5

     Bottom Up

     Top Down

Storyboard Scenarios 1.2

System Versions 1.

Task Quality 9.1.2

Theory 10.1.1

Trial and Error 1.2.2.2

Usability 1.2.2.1

User Costs 9.1.2

User Experience 1.2.2.1

User Requirements 2.2.1

UX Design Frt

Widgets

Wire-Frame Models 1.Worksystem

World Health Organisation – WHO 5.2

Xerox 1.2.11